3.1 Research Design Principles 

Importance of defining analytical goals before sampling 

Within archaeological and related (bioarchaeological, biomolecular archaeology, etc.) research, it is crucial to define analytical goals before sampling an archaeological artefact or ecofact. Establishing clear objectives ensures that the research is focused and that the collected data will be meaningful and relevant. This step helps avoid unnecessary sampling and ensures that the research is guided by specific hypotheses or questions. 

Coordinating analyses across research teams to avoid redundant sampling 

Coordinating analyses across research teams is essential to avoid redundant sampling. Collaborative efforts and communication among different research groups can streamline the process, ensuring that each sample is utilised to its fullest potential. This coordination helps in sharing resources, expertise, samples and data, ultimately enhancing the quality and efficiency of the research. 

Using database records to inform sampling strategies 

Using local database records (e.g., ARHUT) to inform sampling strategies is crucial. These databases provide valuable information about previous research, sample locations, and existing data, which can guide new sampling efforts. By using these records, researchers can make informed decisions about where and how to sample, optimising the use of available resources and minimising the impact on archaeological finds. 

Handling multi-use samples: registering and tracking multiple analyses per sample 

Handling multi-use samples involves registering and tracking multiple analyses per sample within the given databases. This practice ensures that each sample is documented, and its use is tracked throughout various stages of research. Proper registration and tracking prevent loss of information, contamination, and mismanagement of samples, thereby maintaining the integrity of the research. This step further gives insights for setting the goals and aims of a particular research project/study. 

3.2 Sample Selection and Coordination 

• Identifying what has already been sampled and analysed. To identify what has already been sampled and analysed in archaeological collections before selecting new samples for biomolecular analysis, you can follow a systematic approach that combines documentation review, database management, and collaboration. 

• Review existing documentation: i) excavation reports and field notes; ii) museum or repository records (accession logs, catalogues, and conservation records for notes on destructive sampling); iii) published literature. 

• Use or develop a centralised database: I) implement or access a digital collections management system that includes fields for: i) sampled status; ii) type of analysis performed; date and responsible researcher/institution; iii) links to publications and/or reports. II) Use consistent metadata standards to ensure interoperability and traceability. 

• Collaborate with other researchers: i) Reach out to researchers who have worked on the collection to confirm what was sampled and whether additional material remains; ii) Coordinate with curators, conservators, and lab technicians to avoid redundant or excessive sampling.

• Communication protocols for overlapping research interests 

This refers to structured methods and/or agreements that guide how researchers from different disciplines and/or institutions collaborate, especially when they are working on similar or intersecting topics. These protocols potentially allow researchers to i) avoid redundant sampling that could damage limited or fragile materials; ii) ensure consistency in how samples are taken, labelled, and stored; iii) share data to reduce the need for destructive testing. 

It is essential to establish communication protocols, particularly considering ethical concerns surrounding antiquities, such as i) working with indigenous or culturally sensitive materials; ii) complying with international regulations on heritage and sample export; iii) securing informed consent from local communities or stakeholders. 

Two key aspects of avoiding redundant sampling are: 

• Physical labelling and sampling records: ensure that all previously sampled items are clearly labelled with unique identifiers. 

• Sampling Logs: maintain detailed logs of all sampling events, including photographs, sample locations on the object, and rationale for selection. 

• Ensuring traceability of reused materials across projects 

• Integrate with existing (inter)national repositories: i) cross-reference with repositories; ii) use persistent identifiers: Use persistent identifiers (either url-s or codes in certain databases) to link samples to their digital records and publications. 

3.3 Documentation of Archaeological Context 

• Core metadata requirements: 

• • Site name (use the site names in the original language, Reiter et al. 2024)
  • Collection/ledger number (e.g TÜ 1234 in the University of Tartu), which is distinct from the site number
  • Specimen number, typically in pairs with collection number, e.g. TÜ 2222:2
  • Geographical coordinates (if possible and in accordance with the legislation and protection of cultural heritage objects)
  • Year of the excavation campaign
  • Date of the archaeological find/site (BCE/CE)
  • Cultural affiliation (e.g., archaeological culture) of the site 

• Use of structured metadata input in ARHUT 

• Integration (or lack thereof) between lab databases and archaeological context sources 

• ARHUT with its various databases (e.g., TARA) provides source of context. 

3.4 Sample Naming and Identification 

• Assigning sample IDs and maintaining consistency across systems 

• • Example: Sample naming in Archemy ->   

• • Primary artefacts/samples (e.g. human bones, animal skeleton, ceramic potsherds and food crusts) are labelled by the abbreviation of the archaeological site and collection numbers (e.g., KUK_TÜ1777_100 = Kukruse cemetery, with a collection no TÜ1777 and bone (or e.g. Sherd) no 100), whereas further description should be added in the sample table if needed about e.g. bone element sampled. If needed, additional explanatory information can be added, e.g. burial number who is sampled, from where the pot comes from, e.g., KUK_TÜ1777_XV_1 = Kukruse cemetery, with a collection no TÜ1777, burial XV and bone (or e.g. sherd) no 100. NOTE: These identifiers are known to archaeologists who are well-acquainted with the material. This information should also be included in all tables within the publications. 

• • The secondary samples (subsamples of primary samples) are generated for conducting different analyses or sample preparation methods from the same sample. The naming follows the same logic as the primary sample: abbreviations of archaeological site, artefact/ecofact collection number and sub-number to indicate an aliquot of the primary sample (e.g., KUK_TÜ1777_100_1/a; KUK_TÜ1777_100_2/b). In those cases further recordings as to what kind of analysis (SIA, ORA AE, ORA SE, microfossil analysis etc), who took/worked with the subsample and when the sample was taken must be recorded in the same table to allow comparative and cohesive analysis of the same individual/artefact entity and results obtaied with different analysis.; 

• Documenting lab-specific analysis numbers (e.g., lab ID, “peanumber”) 

• Mapping returned lab identifiers to ARHUT sample IDs provides a solid link between ARHUT and local sample IDs. 

3.5 Sample Passport and Tracking 

• Description of the “sample passport” tag accompanying the specimen 
• Add physical labels of sampled specimens (including information: specimen no, sample ID, species/type, type of analysis, name of the sampler, date of sampling, no of the sampling protocol) to the collection box 
• Physical and digital versions of the sampling protocol 
• Recording and tracking leftover material and storage location 

3.6 Documentation Challenges and Responsibilities 

• Problems with access: labs often lack archaeological context; archaeologists may lack database access 

• Missing communication between different ongoing projects/sampling campaigns 

• Manual cross-entry burden between disconnected systems 

• Step-by-step strategies to fill in contextual metadata in ARHUT post-analysis 

• Responsibility for ensuring metadata completeness and accuracy 

  
  

Guidelines for ethical handling of the invasive sampling can be found in Code of Conduct.pdf and Ethics Assessment: Ethics Assesment_230630-ver final.pdf 

References 

Sampling guidelines of the ChemArch project https://sites.google.com/palaeome.org/chemarch/research-outputs/sampling-guidelines?authuser=0